Ideally most workouts could be invigorating and enjoyable, however that will not be the case at least initially. Exercise has many benefits, over the long term you gain strength, lose or gain weight, boost endurance, relieve stress, have fun, etc.. Once the initial break in time is negotiated some exercisers experience joy during the workout. Runners can have a runner’s high. Sachs (1980, p. 52) gave a description of the runner’s high “a euphoric sensation experienced during running, usually unexpected, in which the runner feels a heightened sense of well-being, enhanced appreciation of nature, and transcendence of barriers of time and space.” The running high is believed to be related to a naturally occurring chemical in the body called enkephalin (a subgroup of endorphins) that resembles heroin in chemical composition. It inhibits afferent pain fibers and thus leads to a relaxed state under the stress of exertion (Jones & Smith, 1979). However, the runner’s high was proposed to occur after reaching an upper level of fitness, not available to the beginner, that allowed a runner to run easily and comfortably for 5 to 10 miles. Lilliefors (1980) envisioned the high as a relatively painless sort of running for those who had paid the price with previous fitness training. I experienced the runner’s high a couple of times in my younger days, early 1970’s. Those occasions although fleeting helped sustain my running motivation for 53 years now. My sensation during the high was one of floating above the ground, with no sense of exertion. When I realized the high I tried to prolong it, but that conscious effort brought it to a sudden end. It was like a peak experience that Maslow (1967, p. 12) described – “The most propitious frame of mind for receiving them is one of receptivity, almost a kind of passivity, or trust, or surrender, a Taoistic attitude of letting things happen without interfering or butting in. You have to be able to give up pride, will, dominance, being at the wheel, being in charge. You have to be able to relax and let it happen.”
Unlike aerobic activities such as running, biking, etc., lifting weights is not conducive to experiencing a relaxed steady state. The objective in weight work is to exhaust the muscles to some extent, thus having them build back stronger. So, the effort to fatigue or stress the muscles takes a special mindset. In his book Mind Pump – The Psychology of Bodybuilding (1988, p. 126) Kubistant, EdD, states “It may seem a little strange, or even masochistic, but learn to look forward to the discomfort. Remind yourself that this is when your inner muscle fibers are being best stimulated…..during the last couple of reps of the set….the most complete muscle stimulation occurs that encourages subsequent growth”. For advanced lifters such as Arnold Schwarzenegger, the famous bodybuilder, actor, and former governor of California, the pump that comes with extreme lifting can be somewhat enjoyable. He says, “Bodybuilding should be fun because you get a feeling of satisfaction which is very hard to explain. A bodybuilder knows that when he pumps up his muscle it means growth…. So therefore he knows when he pumps up well, that is progress….the pump feels good. It’s actually the best feeling a bodybuilder can have.” (Gaines & Butler, 1974, p. 48)
However, short term consequences in the beginning of a fitness program, such as muscle soreness, sweating, slow progress, fatigue, altered time use, etc., can take 6 to 9 months to gain adaption. In fitness programs, ranging from 6 months to 4 years, that involved endurance activity for healthy, coronary risk, and cardiac rehab subjects, there was a 30% to 70% dropout rate (Dishman, 1982; Franklin, 1978; Oldridge, 1982). Thus, hopefully with patience and knowledge, those that start an exercise program can make it part of their lives for a lifetime. Knowing the benefits and possible joy of workouts in the long term can ideally offset the initial short-term consequences.
The Center for Disease Control (CDC) (www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/basics/adults/index.htm), and the American Heart Association (AHA)(www.heart.org/en/healthy-living/fitness-basics/target-heart-rates) have the recommendations for amount and intensity of exercise. The CDC has three levels of recommended exercise with the easiest being moderate intensity aerobic activity of 150 minutes every week, like a brisk walk 30 minutes a day, 5 days a week. Plus, 2 or more days a week of muscle strength training activities for the major muscle groups of the body. As mentioned in the introduction, only 23% of the US population meet those exercise guidelines. The AHA also recommends a target heart rate for aerobic activity of 50 to 85% of maximum heart rate. One method of calculating your maximum heart rate is 220 minus age, then you multiple that by .50 and .85 to find the aerobic target heart rate range. For example, at 76 (when this post was written) my max heart rate is 220 – 76 = 144. And .50 x 144 = 72 heart beats per minute for the low point of my target heart rate. Then 144 x .85 = 122 heart beats per minute, which is the high point of my target heart rate. The AHA website above has a target heart rate chart for young and old. Heart rate can be found using a heart rate monitor or taking your pulse at the wrist for 10 seconds right after exercise and multiplying by 6, to get approximate heart beats per minute.
Aerobic means ‘with air’ and refers to the body producing energy with the use of oxygen. This typically involves any exercise that lasts longer than two minutes in duration. Continuous ‘steady state’ exercise is performed aerobically. Anaerobic means ‘without air’ and refers to the body producing energy without oxygen. The 100 yard dash in track meets would be considered anaerobic.
Of course, it is important to have confidence that your workouts are ideal for you and the accomplishment of your goals. Plus, hopefully they can be somewhat enjoyable and sustainable over a lifetime. One of the key principles about improving weightlifting and aerobic workouts is progressive overload. Milo of Croton – A Greek wrestler around 540 BC was one of the first humans to discover this principle of progressive overload.
Milo of Croton
Milo decided to carry a newborn calf on his shoulder’s day by day, for more than four years. While people were laughing at him, the small calf slowly grew into an adult ox and Milo got stronger and stronger along the way. (“Milo of Croton”, Wikipedia, en, wikipedia.org/wiki/Milo-of-Croton)
So today in our era the progressive overload principle still applies. However, rather than continually increasing the amount weight lifted or the length or intensity of aerobic workouts there are various methods to make progress less daunting. One of the main methods for progression in weightlifting and aerobic programs is called periodization that has variations in training specificity, intensity, and volume organized in planned periods or cycles (Baechle & Earle, 2000). In weightlifting intensity is the amount of weight being lifted, and volume is the number of sets and repetitions, or total number of exercises. In the athletic world most programs have their athletes peaking two or three times a year especially during the competitive season. An individual can use a similar periodization program for beginning and maintaining their personal fitness.
There are two types of periodization – linear and undulating or (nonlinear).
Above is an example of linear periodization for weightlifting. This example is for an in-shape athlete, possibly a college football player. The average person or beginner would start with a weight that would become difficult near the end of 15 or 20 reps in the hypertrophy/endurance phase and 1 set for a few weeks or more. But this is just a template that can be altered and adapted for anyone wanting to progress with their weight workouts. The phases begin first with hypertrophy/endurance, then progress to basic strength workouts, then to strength/power workouts, and transition to competition peaking and/or maintenance workouts. The linear phases such as hypertrophy, basic strength, strength/power may last 1 to 6 weeks or longer for the average person. On the model 1RM is an abbreviation for one repetition maximum, a measure of a lifter’s absolute maximum strength for any given exercise. Testing 1RM requires an individual has adequate fitness and lifting experience because 1RM assessment places significant stress on the muscles, joints, and connective tissues. Consequently, for most of us not classified as an elite athlete the other alternative for amount of weight to be lifted is experimentation in the beginning with a weight that becomes difficult near the end of the required repetitions. There are charts estimating % of 1RM, but experimentation serves the purpose. Progression in weightlifting should be approximately 5% of the weight you can lift. For example, if you can do 2 sets of 12 reps of dumbbell arm curls with 30 lbs, you should drop back to 8 reps and add 1.5 lbs to each dumbbell, 1.5 lbs is 15% of 30 lbs.
| Undulating (nonlinear) Periodization (Griffin, 2006, p. 203) | Monday | Wednesday | Friday |
| Sets | 3-5 | 3-4 | 5-6 |
| Reps | 6-12 | 12-20 | 2-5 |
| Intensity/load (% of 1 RM) | 70-80 | 60-70 | 80-100 |
| Rest & Recovery (min) | 1-2 | <1 | 2-5 |
Above is example of undulating (nonlinear) periodization, which is more adapted to us common – non elite athletes that do not need to peak 2 or 3 times a year for athletic contests. So, for daily undulating training, as seen above, within a single week you will have both high volume and high intensity sessions combined with low volume and low intensity sessions. Recall that in weightlifting volume is number of sets and repetitions, or total number of exercises, and intensity is the amount of weight being lifted. As noted by Baechle & Earle (2000 p.520) one advantage of undulating periodization is the absence of accumulated neural fatigue caused by extended ever increasing training intensities common to the linear model. Again the above example can be altered to personal preferences, such as 2 or 3 sets, as opposed to 5 or 6 sets. And the training cycle can be for 2 weeks, before changing it.
Naturally, like every other endeavor to improve our lives there are sticking points, hurdles, or plateaus in strength training to overcome. For example, if you are stuck on a weight doing 1 set of 8 to 12 reps and can’t progress to a higher weight, after the 12th rep lower the weight by 10% and do 2 to 4 more reps. As explained by Westcott (2016) this solution known as breakdown training provides a deeper stimulus to the muscle fibers so that you train more intensely and use a greater percentage of muscle strength. Soon you will be able to add 5% more weight and do a set of 6 to 8 reps.
Breakdown training is one of many strength training techniques that can help with progress in strength fitness, there are many others such as negatives, drop sets, super sets, etc.. Also, other forms of strengthening methods that might be ideal for you include physioball routine, plyometrics, group exercise classes, bodyweight exercises, machines, cables, speed and agility training, balance training for seniors, medicine ball exercises, TRX and flexible band exercises, sand bags, kettle bells, along with free weights, etc.. Here is a list of references for other techniques and overall strength training programs: Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning, Baechle & Earle,2000; Conditioning to the Core, Brettenham & Taylor, 2014; Periodization Training for Sports, Bompa &Carrera, 2005; Men’s Body Sculpting, Evans, 2004; Superflex-Ms. Olympia’s Guide to Building a Strong & Sexy Body, Everson & Everson, 1987; Client-Centered Exercise Prescription 2nd Ed. Griffin, 2006; Maximum Muscle Plan – Men’s Health, Incledon & Hoffman, 2005: The Book of Muscle, King & Schuler, 2003; Smarter Workouts – The Science of Exercise Made Simple, McCall, 2019; Getting Stronger, Pearl & Moran, 1986: Body For Life, Phillips & D’Orso, 1999; Foundations of Personal Fitness, Rainey & Murray, 2005; Back Exercise – Stabilize, Mobilize, & Reduce Pain, Richey, 2021; Core Performance, Verstegan & Williams, 2004; Building Strength & Stamina 3rd Ed., Westcott, 2016.
Similar to improving muscular fitness, if you are partly unmotivated for an aerobic fitness program it is important to at least start with one that gradually improves your aerobic endurance, as opposed to one where progress could be questionable causing you to drop out. As mentioned above aerobics means with oxygen and includes many activities like running, biking, swimming, etc., that last longer than two minutes. Chose activities you enjoy for the most part. And it is best to have a variety of aerobic options. We like same, but we also like different and new. For example, if running or biking gets old try rollerblading and swimming.
If you are beginning an aerobic program there are many good resources that can help, starting with Kenneth Cooper MD who is known as the father of aerobics. His first book Aerobics (1968) encouraged many to become active with his self administered fitness test and appropriate assignment to training programs that improved the cardiovascular system and overall health. His Cooper Aerobic Center in Dallas opened in 1970 and is world renowned. He went on to publish 18 books on fitness including New Aerobics (1979) and the latest – Start Strong, Finish Strong (2007). He is now 91 and famous for his programs for running, cycling, swimming, walking, etc., and research on the benefits of aerobic and strength training. Any one of his books will give important training programs and information on how to be healthy.
www.halhigdon.com is another source for beginning to advanced runners and walkers for training programs from 5K to the marathon. Hal is a former collegiate, and olympic trials runner. He has been a contributing editor for Runner”s World magazine since 1966. Higdon was one of the founders of the Road Runner’s Club of America in 1958.
Also, http://www.letsrun.com is dedicated to covering and promoting running. It considers itself the internet home for competitive runners throughout the English speaking world. Based in Flagstaff, AZ it has coaching plans for beginners as well as Olympic level runners. It is also the first place to go for the most up to date running and racing news and results. In this day training programs for any sport are available on the internet, many times for free.
One sport I would like to mention that is a great aerobic workout, little known in the US but popular in Europe, the Orient, and India, is badminton. Click on this Olympic badminton video to see what it is like – https://youtu.be/6RqND3BAf1A
These badminton players must have similar aerobic fitness to cross country skiers, who are considered the fittest of all athletes. Badminton unfortunately needs a high ceiling, no wind, and court lines – which are usually only found at colleges, high schools, or upscale fitness centers. Badminton takes a lot of concentration which tends to mentally offset the amount of aerobic effort experienced. However, in the US badminton is considered an unmacho game played in pitty pat style in the backyard with friends and family. Yet as former US marine I can assure you badminton by the rules, rivals macho activities like carrying mortars and/or machine guns at a route step up and down hills for its great aerobic workout.
As a beginner or even for the experienced aerobic exerciser it seems helpful to understand factors related to aerobic endurance. Naturally no one likes the feeling of being out of breath during exercise along with the sensation of your muscles becoming so weak that you have to stop and take a break before you would like. Possibly understanding what is happening in your body during that exhaustive state would be helpful in improving your aerobic endurance and motivation for fitness. As noted by Baechle & Earle (2000) the main factors in aerobic endurance are 1. Maximal aerobic power, 2. Lactate threshold, 3. Exercise economy, 4. Fuel utilization, 5. Fiber type characteristics.
1.Maximal aerobic power is VO2 max – your body’s maximal ability to extract and use oxygen. One method for improving VO2 max is short, high intensity bouts of interval sprints, with short rest periods, also known as high intensity, intermittent training (HIIT). Here are two good articles on the specifics of HIIT training, plus Fartlek and Tabata that are forms of HIIT training, from the AZ Daily Star here in Tucson – (9/23/24, p. A12). To enlarge the print hit the plus sign at the top and use bar at bottom to center the first article. The second article may have to be downloaded to enlarge, or zoomed to a higher percentage.
2. Lactacte Threshold (LT) ” the exercise intensity at which the blood lactate and/or lactic acid begins to increase rapidly – approximately at 85% maximum heart rate (mhr) or 75% of VO2 max.” (Wikipedia, 2022) As noted in www.active.com “the advantage of having a high LT is that you can work at a higher intensity for a longer time before lactate (or lactic acid) levels become intolerable”. Lactic acid and lactate are often used interchangeably. But lactic acid has a hydrogen ion that is available to donate, while lactate is the molecule left after that hydrogen ion is cleaved from the molecule. “During high intensity exercise muscles require more oxygen than the body can take in, causing anerobic respiration and lactic acid build up.” (www.orthosportsmed.com, 12/9/21) Lactate is believed by some researchers to help clear lactic acid. Above the LT muscles get tired and may not be able to contract effectively. To raise LT requires increasing volume, intensity, and duration of training gradually, and training at elevated levels of blood and muscle lactate to maximize training improvements.
3. Exercise economy refers to expending less energy during exercise to maintain a given exercise velocity. In other words, your coordination or style may be more motion efficient. For example, elite long distance runners may have a shorter stride length and greater stride frequency than the nonelite.
4. Fuel utilization – aerobic training can result in greater utilization of fat as a fuel source (as opposed to depletion of carbohydrate stores in the body) and conservation of muscle and liver glycogen for aerobic energy.
5. Fiber – there are basically two muscle fiber types in a human body. Type 1 fibers have a high capacity for aerobic metabolism, and high mitochondrial density and oxidative enzyme capacity. Type 1 fibers are slow twitch. Type 2 fibers are fast twitch and capable of developing higher forces and velocities of muscle action than Type 1. Humans vary one to another on the percentage of these two fiber types in their bodies. Studies have shown a high correlation between high Type 1 fiber percentage and elite performance in aerobic endurance events. Fiber types have not been shown to change in percentage significantly in the body with training. In other words, it is beneficial for aerobic endurance to be born with a high percentage of Type 1 fibers. For instance, Boston Marathon winners are usually fairly short and thin, with predominant Type 1 fibers. The winner has never been 6′ 4″, 260 lbs, looking like an NFL linebacker. So if you resemble and NFL linebacker understand that aerobic activity will be a little more difficult with predominant Type 2 fibers, but it is important for cardiovascular health. Many races like the 5K and 10K have age and weight divisions so individuals can compare and be competitive according to their age and/or weight.
There are five general types of aerobic endurance training. See link at Types of aerobic training – (trekeducation.org). The initial phase is the long slow distance (LSD) where you improve distance and times gradually with training programs like those on www.halhigdon.com. Eventually you add the other types of training like pace/tempo to raise your lactate threshold and VO2 max. Also see Harvard website on HIIT training – HIIT (High Intensity Interval Training) | The Nutrition Source | Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. When a training program recommends intensity at VO2 max or close to it, use this link to convert heart rate to percent VO2 max Heart Rate and Percent VO2max Conversion Calculator (shapesense.com).
Testing to determine your VO2 max and lactate threshold (LT) costs money and if done once needs to be repeated a number of times to determine changes. Consequently, these tests are mainly done on elite athletes. However, for us less than elite individuals we can determine approximate LT with above shapesense conversion calculator knowing that LT is near 85% maximum heart rate (mhr) or 75% of VO2 max. Beyond that lactate threshold can be felt as we experience breathlessness and muscle exhaustion. The quest for aerobic endurance improvement is to push that line of the LT and V02 max up with gradual training methods that help our bodies progress. As noted in the Eric Heiden post “Continuing to exercise will actually immunize you against the discomfort you feel when you first start out….as you grow fitter all your systems get better at delivering what you need. Your lungs, heart, and blood have ramped up; your brain and muscles have synchronized and become more efficient; your mitochondria have increased in size and number to dish out more energy; and your body has learned to better utilize that energy, better triage your blood flow, and better store glucose”.